Dietary Fats

Defining fats

Dietary fats, or lipids, are important components of the human diet. They provide energy (9 kcal per gram) and play critical roles in the body. These include building cell membranes, transporting fat soluble vitamins, serving as precursors of bioactive compounds, and influencing gene expression. In the EU legislation (  EU 2011) fats are referred to as total lipids, which include phospholipids.

Dietary fats consist mainly of  triglycerides (or triacylglycerols), mono- and diacylglycerols, phospholipids and lipids such cholesterol. Triglycerides consist of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule (  Present Knowledge in Nutrition 2020,  EFSA 2010).  

Fatty acids, the building blocks of fats, are classified based on their carbon chain length (typically even-numbered) and the number of double bonds they contain. The main types are saturated fatty acids (SFA) and unsaturated fatty acids, which can be further divided into monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Unsaturated fatty acids can also be classified based on the geometric configuration of their double bonds; most have a cis configuration, but some­, have at least one double bond in the trans configuration. These are referred to as trans fatty acids (TFA). A substantial body of epidemiological evidence highlights the usefulness of grouping fats and fatty acids into the major categories outlined above, as these groups of fats are strongly associated with specific health effects (  FAO 2010 (pdf)). For more detailed definitions and examples of specific fatty acids, refer to Table 1.  

Table 1: Main dietary fatty acids

SFAs are categorised by their carbon chain length into short, medium, long and very long chain fatty acids. Among PUFAs, two are essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 (ω-3 or n-3), and linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 (ω-6 or n-6). These essential fatty acids must come from the diet (   Present Knowledge in Nutrition 2020,  EFSA 2010). Other long-chain (LC) PUFAs, such as the omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are considered conditionally essential: While the body can produce them from ALA, this process may be insufficient in some cases, therefore may need to be supplied though the diet. The term conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) refers to a mixture of isomers of linoleic acid that differ from other PUFA in their double bond chemistry ( EFSA 2010).

Trans fatty acids (TFA) are classified into two types: naturally occurring ruminant TFAs (rTFAs) and industrially produced TFAs (iTFAs). rTFAs are formed by bacteria in the stomachs of ruminant animals, while iTFAs are created during the partial hydrogenation of liquid oils into solid fats. Industrial and ruminant TFAs contain similar compounds (Table 1), though their proportions differ ( EFSA 2010). 

Dietary sources of fats

Dietary fat intake comes predominantly (98%) in the form of triglycerides, derived from both animal- and plant-based foods ( IOM 2005). The main sources of dietary fat include butter, margarine, vegetable oils, meat and poultry, milk and dairy products, egg yolk, nuts and various processed foods. Table 2 provides an overview of the main dietary sources for the different categories of fatty acids. 

Table 2: Main dietary fats and their sources

Labelling of fats in the EU

In the EU, Regulation (EU) 1169/2011 on food information to consumers requires mandatory nutrition declaration for total and saturated fats (in g per 100 g of product) in prepacked foods. This mandatory information may be supplemented with an indication of the amounts of MUFA and PUFA. It is not allowed to declare the TFA (as well as cholesterol) content in the nutrition declaration (  EC 2015 (pdf); however, Reg. (EU) 1169/2011 requires that information that is given in the ingredient list includes presence of partially (containing among others TFA) or fully (containing no TFA but SFA only) hydrogenated oils. Therefore, in the EU, 'checking the ingredient list of pre-packed foods for partially hydrogenated oils is the only possibility for consumers to identify products that may contain TFA, although this is not giving any indication about the actual TFA content' (  EC 2015 (pdf)). Under Regulation (EU) 1924/2006 ( EC 2006) for health and nutrition claims made on foods, the following fat-related nutrition claims are permitted:

• Fat-free claims 'may only be made where the product contains no more than 0,5 g of fat per 100 g or 100 ml. However, claims expressed as 'X % fat-free' shall be prohibited.
• Low fat claims 'may only be made where the product contains no more than 3 g of fat per 100 g for solids or 1,5 g of fat per 100 ml for liquids (1,8 g of fat per 100 ml for semi-skimmed milk).'
• Saturated fat-free claims 'may only be made where the sum of saturated fat and trans-fatty acids does not exceed 0,1 g of saturated fat per 100 g or 100 ml.'
• Low saturated fat claims 'may only be made if the sum of saturated fatty acids and trans-fatty acids in the product does not exceed 1,5 g per 100 g for solids or 0,75 g/100 ml for liquids and in either case the sum of saturated fatty acids and trans-fatty acids must not provide more than 10% of energy.'
• Source of omega-3 fatty acids claims 'may only be made where the product contains at least 0,3 g α-linolenic acid per 100g and per 100kcal, or at least 40mg of the sum of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid per 100g and per 100kcal.'
• High omega-3 fatty acids claims 'may only be made where the product contains at least 0,6 g alpha-linolenic acid per 100 g and per 100 kcal, or at least 80 mg of the sum of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid per 100 g and per 100 kcal.'
• High unsaturated fat claims 'may only be made where at least 70% of the fatty acids present in the product derive from unsaturated fat under the condition that unsaturated fat provides more than 20% of energy of the product.'
• High monounsaturated fat claims 'may only be made where at least 45% of the fatty acids present in the product derive from monounsaturated fat under the condition that monounsaturated fat provides more than 20% of energy of the product.'
• High polyunsaturated fat claims 'may only be made where at least 45% of the fatty acids present in the product derive from polyunsaturated fat under the condition that polyunsaturated fat provides more than 20% of energy of the product.'

Approved nutrition and health claims can be found at the relevant EU Register. 

Fat intake: effects on health

Several national or international institutions have examined the potential impact of fat consumption on health, particularly regarding cardiovascular disease (CVD), Type 2 Diabetes (T2D), obesity and their related risk factors. The statements or opinions of these institutions are shown in Table 3a-f. Most agree that replacing SFA with PUFA, and in some cases MUFA, can improve health outcomes related to CVD and T2D. All the institutions concur that replacing TFA with PUFA and MUFA has the most favourable effects on serum lipid concentration and coronary heart disease (CHD) risk.  

Table 3a: Health effects related to Total fat intake

Table 3b: Health effects related to Saturated fatty acid intake

Table 3c: Health effects related to Monounsaturated fatty acids intake

Table 3d: Health effects related to Polyunsaturated fatty acids intake

Table 3e: Health effects related to Trans-fatty acids intake

Table 3f: Health effects related to Dietary cholesterol intake

Recommended intake of fats

Several nutrition and health-related organisations have issued dietary recommendations on fat intake (Table 4). These acknowledge the importance of fat intake for human physiology as well as the evidence regarding the health implications of high SFA and TFA intake. Most recommend a total fat consumption range of 20 – 35 E% (i.e. % of total daily energy intake), with recommendations ranging from 15 to 40 E% for specific populations or age groups. All reviewed recommendations advise reducing SFA intake to 7 – 12 E%, and suggest avoiding or limiting TFA intake as much as possible, ideally to less than 1 – 2 E%. On the other hand, the consumption of unsaturated fatty acids is encouraged, particularly to replace SFA and TFA. Specific recommendations vary, depending on type (MUFA, n-3 or n-6 PUFA), population group and issuing organisation. Guidelines on cholesterol intake also vary among these organisations.

Table 4: Dietary recommendations for fat intake by food- and health-related organisations

Fat intake across European countries

In the EU, EFSA 2010 compiled data on total fat, MUFA, PUFA, SFA, TFA (and cholesterol) intake, drawn from national food consumption surveys conducted from 1994 onwards, as well as from data in the European Nutrition Health Report of 2009 ( ENHR 2009 (pdf). Data is shown  in Table 5 a-e. Due to differences in the methodology used to assess individual intakes, different age classifications, and different time points analysed, EFSA notes that the quality and quantity of data varies, making direct comparisons difficult.

Table 5a: Overview of total fat intake across the EU

Table 5b: Overview of Saturated fat intake across the EU

Table 5c: Overview of Monounsaturated fatty acids intake across the EU

Table 5d: Overview of Polyunsaturated fatty acids intake across the EU

Table 5e: Overview of trans- fatty acids intake across the EU

Disease burden related to fat intake

As described in Tables 3a-e, the overconsumption or insufficient intake of specific dietary fats poses health risks. The Global Burden of Disease study ( GBD 2025) estimated that diets high in TFA (defined as a average daily TFA intake from all sources exceeding 0 E%) resulted in approximately 2 700 premature deaths and in 54 700 Disability Adjusted Life years (DALYs) in the EU in 2023 (GBD Results Tool). Diets low in PUFA (defined as consuming less than 9–10 of E% from PUFAs) accounted for approximately 38 000 premature deaths, and over 690 000 DALYs in the EU in 2023. In addition, diets low in omega-3 fatty acids from seafood (defined as diets with average daily consumption of less than 470-660 mg of DHA and EPA), accounted for almost 36 000 premature deaths and 625 000 DALYs in the EU in 2023. 

View visualisation DALYs map and data table: omega-3 fatty acids

View visualisation Mortality map and data table: omega-3 fatty acids

View visualisation DALYs map and data table: Polyunsaturated fatty acids

View visualisation Mortality map and data table: Polyunsaturated fatty acids

View visualisation DALYs map and data table: Trans fatty acids            

View visualisation Mortality map and data table: Trans fatty acids

Policy recommendations on fat intake

Several scientific associations, institutions and authorities have issued policy recommendations that ultimately aim to reduce intake of SFA and TFA (Table 6).

Table 6: Examples of policy recommendations to address fat intake

Implemented policies addressing fat intake

Similarly to policy recommendations, most implemented policy approaches can be broadly categorised in those that aim to provide information, make the healthy option available, or provide financial (dis)incentives (Table 7).

Table 7: Examples of implemented policies to address fat intake

References

Overview of the references to this brief